Eficacia y seguridad de eplerenona en pacientes varones con insuficiencia cardiaca crónica con fracción de eyección reducida, clase funcional II-IV NYHA y recibiendo terapia médica óptima y que presentan ginecomastia con mastodinia debido al uso de espironolactona / Efficacy and safety of eplerenone in male patients with chronic heart failure with reduced ejection fraction, NYHA functional class II-IV and receiving optimal medical therapy and presenting with gynecomastia with mastodynia due to the use of spironolactone

INTRODUCCIÓN: El presente dictamen expone la evaluación de la eficacia y seguridad de eplerenona como tratamiento en pacientes con insuficiencia cardíaca crónica con fracción de eyección reducida < 35 %, clase funcional NYHA II-IV y con terapia óptima, que desarrollan ginecomastia con mastodinia debido a uso de espironolactona. La insuficiencia cardiaca (IC) es un conjunto de síntomas y signos que resultan de anormalidades estructurales y/o funcionales de la función cardiaca y que conducen a un gasto cardiaco reducido o altas presiones de llenado al reposo o con esfuerzo. Se clasifica según la fracción de eyección del ventrículo izquierdo (FEVI) como IC con fracción de eyección reducida (ICFEr) o IC con fracción de eyección preservada (ICFEp). La ICFEr tiene una FEVI < 40 %. Todos los pacientes con ICFEr clase NYHA II-IV deben iniciar tratamiento con un inhibidor de la enzima convertidora de angiotensina (IECA) o un bloqueador del receptor de la angiotensina II (ARA II), y un beta bloqueador (BB). Se debe agregar a este esquema un antagonista de los receptores de mineralocorticoides (ARM). El ARM disponible en EsSalud es la espironolactona. Sin embargo, algunos pacientes pueden sufrir el evento adverso de ginecomastia con dolor mamario con su uso, afectando de manera negativa las actividades diarias y la calidad de vida. Según opinión de los especialistas en cardiología, esta situación podría impactar también en la adherencia al tratamiento. OBJETIVO: evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de eplerenona como tratamiento en pacientes con insuficiencia cardiaca crónica con FEVI < 35 %, clase funcional NYHA II-IV y con terapia óptima, que desarrollan ginecomastia con mastodinia debido a uso de espironolactona. METODOLOGÍA: La búsqueda de la literatura científica se realizó con el objetivo de identificar evidencia sobre eplerenona en el tratamiento de los pacientes con insuficiencia cardiaca crónica con fracción de eyección reducida < 35 %, clase funcional NYHA II-IV y con terapia óptima, que desarrollan ginecomastia con mastodinia debido a uso de espironolactona. La búsqueda de la literatura científica identificó tres GPC (ESC 2021, NICE 2018 y SIGN 2016) y cuatro ensayos clínicos aleatorizados (ECA); tres de ellos fueron controlados con placebo y uno comparó eplerenona con espironolactona. Los tres primeros fueron el estudio RALES que evaluó a espironolactona, el estudio EMPHASIS-HF que evaluó a eplerenona y el estudio J-EMPHASIS-HF que evaluó la eplerenona. El cuarto ensayo comparó espironolactona con eplerenona (Khondokar 2020). RESULTADOS: Se llevó a cabo una búsqueda de evidencia científica relacionada al uso de eplerenona como tratamiento en pacientes con IC crónica con FEVI < 35 %, clase funcional NYHA II-IV y con terapia óptima, que desarrollan ginecomastia con mastodinia debido a uso de espironolactona. En la presente sinopsis se describe la evidencia disponible según el tipo de publicación, siguiendo lo indicado en los criterios de elegibilidad (GPC, ETS, RS, MA y ECA fase III). CONCLUSIONES: En el presente documento, se evaluó la mejor evidencia científica disponible hasta la actualidad en relación con la eficacia y seguridad de eplerenona como tratamiento en pacientes con insuficiencia cardiaca crónica con fracción de eyección reducida < 35%, clase funcional NYHA II-IV y con terapia óptima, que desarrollan ginecomastia con mastodinia debido a uso de espironolactona. La eplerenona ejerce su acción al unirse a los receptores de mineralocorticoides y de esta manera impide su unión a la aldosterona. Eplerenona está contraindicado en los pacientes con: 1) Potasio > 5.5 mEq/L al inicio, 2) Depuración de creatinina ≤ 30 mL/min. Una diferencia importante con la espironolactona es la alta selectividad que tiene eplerenona por los receptores de aldosterona. La introducción del grupo epoxi presente en la eplerenona afecta solo marginalmente su afinidad por los receptores de mineralocorticoides, pero disminuye su afinidad por los receptores de andrógenos y progesterona tres a diez veces menor que el de aldosterona. Todas las guías clínicas consultadas recomiendan agregar un ARM como la espironolactona o eplerenona, al tratamiento óptimo con BB y IECA/ARAII, en pacientes con ICFEr, clase funcional NYHA II-IV, para mejorar su sobrevida. Además, las GPC recomiendan que los clínicos deben considerar cambiar a eplerenona en pacientes que experimentan ginecomastia tomando espironolactona, pero este cambio debe ser considerado como parte de una toma de decisiones compartida, ya que la valoración en evitar la aparición de ginecomastia varia de paciente a paciente. El primer ARM fue espironolactona y fue estudiado en el ECA de Pitt et 1999 (RALES), que evaluó los efectos de agregar espironolactona al régimen recomendado en pacientes con ICFEr y síntomas moderados a severos (clase funcional NYHA III o IV). Comparado con placebo, la adición de espironolactona al régimen de primera línea disminuyó la tasa de muerte por cualquier causa y el riesgo de hospitalización por causas cardiovasculares, comparado con placebo. Posteriormente, se desarrolló otro ARM: eplerenona que fue comparado con placebo en el estudio EMPHASIS-HF, el cual incluyó a pacientes menos sintomáticos (NYHA II) con tratamiento óptimo. La eplerenona redujo el riesgo de muerte por cualquier causa y la hospitalización total, comparado con placebo. Por lo expuesto, el IETSI aprueba el uso de eplerenona como tratamiento en pacientes con insuficiencia cardiaca crónica con FEVI < 35 %, clase funcional NYHA II-IV y con terapia optima, que desarrollan ginecomastia con mastodinia debido a uso de espironolactona. La vigencia del presente dictamen es de dos años, según lo establecido en el Anexo N° 1 y la continuación de dicha aprobación estará sujeta a la evaluación de los resultados obtenidos y de mayor evidencia que pueda surgir en el tiempo.

EAA clinical practice guidelines-gynecomastia evaluation and management.

BACKGROUND: Gynecomastia (GM) is a benign proliferation of the glandular tissue of the breast in men. It is a frequent condition with a reported prevalence of 32-65%, depending on the age and the criteria used for definition. GM of infancy and puberty are common, benign conditions resolving spontaneously in the majority of cases. GM of adulthood is more prevalent among the elderly and proper investigation may reveal an underlying pathology in 45-50% of cases. OBJECTIVES: The aim was to provide clinical practice guidelines for the evaluation and management of GM. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A literature search of articles in English for the term 'gynecomastia' was conducted. Evidence-based recommendations were developed using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) system. RESULTS: A set of five statements and fifteen clinical recommendations was formulated. CONCLUSIONS: The purpose of GM assessment should be the detection of underlying pathological conditions, reversible causes (administration/abuse of aggravating substances), and the discrimination from other breast lumps, particularly breast cancer. Assessment should comprise a thorough medical history and physical examination of the breast and genitalia (including testicular ultrasound). A set of laboratory investigations may integrate the evaluation: testosterone (T), estradiol (E2), sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), luteinizing hormone (LH), follicular stimulating hormone (FSH), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), prolactin, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), alpha-fetal protein (AFP), liver and renal function tests. Breast imaging may be used whenever the clinical examination is equivocal. In suspicious lesions, core needle biopsy should be sought directly instead. Watchful waiting is recommended after treatment of underlying pathology or discontinuation of substances associated with GM. T treatment should be offered to men with proven T deficiency. The use of selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs), aromatase inhibitors (AIs) and non-aromatizable androgens is not justified in general. Surgical treatment is the therapy of choice for patients with long-lasting GM. SUMMARY OF STATEMENTS (S) AND RECOMMENDATIONS (R): S1. Gynecomastia (GM) is a benign proliferation of glandular tissue of the breast in males. S2. GM of infancy is a common condition that usually resolves spontaneously, typically within the first year of life. S3. GM of puberty is a common condition, affecting approximately 50% of mid-pubertal boys; in more than 90% of cases, it resolves spontaneously within 24 months. S4. The prevalence of GM in adulthood increases with increasing age; proper investigation may reveal an underlying pathology in approximately 45-50% of the cases. S5. Male breast cancer is rare; GM should not be considered a premalignant condition. The following recommendations are divided into 'strong', denoted by the number 1 and associated with the terminology 'we recommend', and 'weak' denoted by the number 2 and associated with the phrase 'we suggest'. The grading of the quality of evidence is denoted as follows: ⊕○○○ for very low-quality evidence; ⊕⊕○○ for low quality; ⊕⊕⊕○ for moderate quality; and ⊕⊕⊕⊕ for high quality. R1. The presence of an underlying pathology should be considered in GM of adulthood. We recommend that the identification of an apparent reason for GM in adulthood, including the use of medication known to be associated with GM, should not preclude a detailed investigation (1 ⊕⊕⊕○). R2. We suggest that the initial screening to rule out lipomastia, obvious breast cancer, or testicular cancer might be performed by a general practitioner or another non-specialist (2 ⊕○○○). R3. We recommend that in those cases where a thorough diagnostic workup is warranted, it should be performed by a specialist (1 ⊕○○○). R4. We recommend that the medical history should include information on the onset and duration of GM, sexual development and function, and administration or abuse of substances associated with GM (1 ⊕⊕⊕○). R5. We recommend that the physical examination should detect signs of under-virilization or systemic disease (1 ⊕⊕⊕⊕). R6. We recommend that breast examination should confirm the presence of palpable glandular tissue to discriminate GM from lipomastia (pseudo-gynecomastia) and rule out the suspicion of malignant breast tumor (1 ⊕⊕⊕⊕). R7. We recommend that the physical examination should include the examination of the genitalia to rule out the presence of a palpable testicular tumor and to detect testicular atrophy (1 ⊕⊕⊕⊕). R8. We recommend that genitalia examination is aided by a testicular ultrasound, as the detection of a testicular tumor by palpation has low sensitivity (1 ⊕⊕○○). R9. We suggest that a set of evaluations may include T, E2 , SHBG, LH, FSH, TSH, prolactin, hCG, AFP, and liver and renal function tests (2 ⊕⊕○○). R10. We suggest that breast imaging may offer assistance, where the clinical examination is equivocal (2 ⊕⊕○○). R11. We suggest that, if the clinical picture is suspicious for a malignant lesion, core needle biopsy should be performed (2 ⊕⊕○○). R12. We recommend watchful waiting after treatment of underlying pathology or discontinuation of the administration/abuse of substances associated with GM (1 ⊕⊕○○). R13. We recommend that T treatment should be offered only to men with proven testosterone deficiency (1 ⊕⊕⊕○). R14. We do not recommend the use of selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs), aromatase inhibitors (AIs), or non-aromatizable androgens in the treatment of GM in general (1 ⊕⊕○○). R15. We suggest surgical treatment only for patients with long-lasting GM, which does not regress spontaneously or following medical therapy. The extent and type of surgery depend on the size of breast enlargement, and the amount of adipose tissue (2 ⊕⊕○○).

Gynecomastia in Infants, Children, and Adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Gynecomastia may occur physiologically in the neonatal period, during puberty, and in old age. It may also develop in association with various pathologic states. The challenge for the physician is to distinguish physiological gynecomastia from those with an underlying pathology. OBJECTIVE: To review in depth the pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and treatment of gynecomastia. METHOD: A PubMed search was completed in Clinical Queries using the key term "gynecomastia". Patents were searched using the key term "gynecomastia" from www.google.com/patents, www.uspto.gov, and www.freepatentsonline.com. RESULTS: Gynecomastia is caused by an imbalance between the stimulatory effect of estrogen and the inhibitory effect of androgen at the breast tissue level. Clinically, gynecomastia is characterized by the presence of a firm or rubbery, discrete, subareolar ridge of glandular tissue that is symmetrical in shape, freely movable, and nonadherent to skin or underlying tissue. Since most cases of physiological gynecomastia regress spontaneously with time, reassurance is all that is necessary. For pathological gynecomastia, treatment should be directed at the underlying cause, if possible. If gynecomastia persists in spite of the above measures, pharmacologic therapy and reduction mammoplasty may be considered. Recent patents related to the management of gynecomastia are discussed. CONCLUSION: The majority of cases are physiological and do not require treatment other than reassurance. For pathological cases, the underlying cause should be treated if possible. If gynecomastia persists in spite of the above measures and treatment becomes necessary, tamoxifen is the treatment of choice. Reduction mammoplasty may be considered for resistant cases.

Estrías generalizadas secundarias a tratamiento tópico con clobetasol y minoxidil en un paciente con psoriasis / Generalized striae rubra due to cronic abuse of clobetasol and minoxidil formule in a patient with psoriasis

No disponible

Pubertal Development in17Beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 3 Deficiency
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BACKGROUND: 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17ß-HSD) type 3 deficiency is an autosomal recessive disorder with diminished testosterone synthesis and consequently underandrogenisation. 46,XY patients with 17ß-HSD type 3 deficiency are often assigned a female sex at birth but have a high virilisation potential at the time of puberty. METHODS: We studied four 46,XY patients with 17ß-HSD type 3 deficiency at puberty with regard to the underlying mutations, the hormone values, and the clinical findings. RESULTS: Three patients were initially assigned a female sex and 1 was assigned a male sex. All had relevant mutations in the HSD17B3 gene. The 2 patients with deleterious mutations had lower testosterone values at the time of puberty than the patients with possible residual activity of 17ß-HSD type 3. One of the latter patients changed to male gender. CONCLUSION: All 4 patients with 17ß-HSD type 3 deficiency synthesized relevant amounts (>0.7 µg/L) of testosterone at puberty, which lead to variable androgenisation. In patients with presumable residual activity of the mutated enzyme, testosterone values in the male reference range can be achieved, thereby inducing male pubertal development. These patients should possibly be assigned a male sex. Any surgical intervention should be avoided until the patients are old enough to consider their options of medical and surgical intervention.
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The effect of tamoxifen on pubertal bone development in adolescents with pubertal gynecomastia.

During puberty, estrogen has a biphasic effect on epiphyses; at low levels, it leads to an increase in height and bone mass, whereas at high levels, it leads to closure of the epiphysis. Tamoxifen is a selective estrogen receptor modulator that has been used in the treatment of pubertal gynecomastia. Although it has not been approved for this indication, studies have shown it to be both successful and safe. In males, the peak of pubertal bone development occurs during Tanner stage 3-4, which is also when pubertal gynecomastia reaches its highest prevalence. Thus tamoxifen treatment could potentially effect pubertal bone development. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of tamoxifen on bone mineral density (BMD) and skeletal maturation when used for pubertal gynecomastia. We evaluated 20 boys with pubertal gynecomastia receiving tamoxifen for at least 4 months. BMD was measured with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Z-score and absolute BMD (g/cm(2)) was determined at baseline and 2 months after completing tamoxifen treatment. Bone age and height was evaluated before treatment and again one year later. Using absolute BMD (g/cm(2)), the mean difference from baseline was significant between the two groups both at spine (p=0.002) and femur (p=0.001), but not with the Z-score. This result was attributed to the expected increase during puberty according to sex and age. No significant effect on skeletal maturation was found (p=1.112). We conclude that when pubertal bone development is concerned, tamoxifen is safe for the treatment of pubertal gynecomastia as neither bone mineralization nor growth potential was affected.

Ginecomastia / Gynecomastia

O objetivo deste trabalho foi observar na literatura dados referentes à etiologia da ginecomastia, seu diagnóstico e aspectos radiológicos. A metodologia adotada foi a pesquisa bibliográfica sistematizada para a produção de um artigo de revisão, de modo a responder ao objetivo proposto. A ginecomastia pode ser dividida em fisiológica (neonatal, puberal e senil) e patológica (resultante da diminuição da ação da testosterona, ou do aumento da ação estrogênica, por mecanismo de indução por drogas, idiopática ou secundária a outras causas). O diagnóstico deve ser realizado através do exame físico, investigação endócrina e exames radiológicos, como a mamografia e a ultrassonografia. O tratamento está baseado na orientação, medicamentos e, em último caso, cirúrgico.(AU)

The objective of this study was to observe data in the literature regarding the etiology, diagnosis and radiological aspects of gynecomastia. The methodology included a systematic literature search to produce a review article in order to meet the objective. Gynecomastia can be divided into physiologic (neonatal, pubertal and senile) and pathological (due to decreased action of testosterone, increased estrogen action, drug?induced, idiopathic or due to other causes). The diagnosis could be made by physical examination, endocrine and radiological investigation, as mammography and ultrasound. The treatment is based on the guidance, medication and, ultimately, surgery.(AU)

A Longitudinal Study of Growth, Sex Steroids, and IGF-1 in Boys With Physiological Gynecomastia.

CONTEXT: Physiological gynecomastia is common and affects a large proportion of otherwise healthy adolescent boys. It is thought to be caused by an imbalance between estrogen and testosterone, although this is rarely evident in analyses of serum. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to describe the frequency of physiological gynecomastia and to determine possible etiological factors (eg, auxology and serum hormone levels) in a longitudinal setup. DESIGN, SETTINGS, AND PARTICIPANTS: A prospective cohort study of 106 healthy Danish boys (5.8-16.4 years) participated in the longitudinal part of the COPENHAGEN Puberty Study. The boys were examined every 6 months during an 8-year follow-up. Median number of examinations was 10 (2-15). MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Blood samples were analyzed for FSH, LH, testosterone, estradiol, SHBG, inhibin B, anti-Müllerian hormone, IGF-1, and IGF binding protein-3 by immunoassays. Auxological parameters, pubertal development, and the presence of gynecomastia were evaluated at each visit. RESULTS: Fifty-two of 106 boys (49%) developed gynecomastia, of which 10 (19%) presented with intermittent gynecomastia. Boys with physiological gynecomastia reached peak height velocity at a significantly younger age than boys who did not develop gynecomastia (13.5 versus 13.9 years, P = .027), and they had significantly higher serum levels of IGF-1 (P = .000), estradiol (P = .013), free testosterone (P < .001), and FSH (P = .030) during pubertal transition. However, no differences in serum LH or in the estradiol to testosterone ratio were found. CONCLUSIONS: Gynecomastia is frequent in pubertal boys. Increased IGF-1 levels and pubertal growth appear to be associated, whereas changes in estrogen to testosterone ratio seem negligible.

Mixed gynecomastia.

Gynecomastia is an enlargement of male breast resulting from a proliferation of its glandular component, and it is usually due to an altered estrogen-androgen balance. It should be differentiated from pseudogynecomastia, which is characterized by fat deposition without glandular proliferation and from breast carcinoma. Gynecomastia could be physiological in neonates and pubertal or pathological due to drug intake, chronic liver, or renal disease, hyperthyroidism, testicular or adrenal neoplasms, and hypogonadism whether primary, or secondary. Properly organized work-up is needed to reach the cause of gynecomastia. Here, we reported a case of a young Omani man with gynecomastia with the aim of creating awareness of the occurrence of Klinefelter's syndrome (KS) in patients with gynecomastia, to observe any differences in clinical presentation of KS from those reported in the literature, and highlight the needed diagnostic work-up and treatment.

Enfermedad de Hansen y ginecomastia / No disponible

La lepra es una de las causas de ginecotelia, sin embargo poco se ha publicado sobre este signo común y generalmente ignorado. La prevalencia de ginecomastia, una complicación bien conocida de la lepra en pacientes varones adultos, es poco reportada. El tratamiento temprano tiene un efecto notable en la reducción de la misma. Presentamos el caso de un varón con lepra multibacilar con ginecotelia y ginecomastia, en el curso de la enfermedad

Leprosy is one of the causes of gynaecothelia, however little has been published on this common and generally ignored sign. The prevalence of gynecomastia, a well known leprosy complication in adult male patients, is little reported. Early treatment has a marked effect in reducing it. Here we present the case of a man with multibacillary leprosy who had been associated gynaecothelia and gynecomastia in the course of the disease

Genomic basis of aromatase excess syndrome: recombination- and replication-mediated rearrangements leading to CYP19A1 overexpression.

CONTEXT: Genomic rearrangements at 15q21 have been shown to cause overexpression of CYP19A1 and resultant aromatase excess syndrome (AEXS). However, mutation spectrum, clinical consequences, and underlying mechanisms of these rearrangements remain to be elucidated. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to clarify such unsolved matters. DESIGN, SETTING, AND METHODS: We characterized six new rearrangements and investigated clinical outcome and local genomic environments of these rearrangements and of three previously reported duplications/deletions. RESULTS: Novel rearrangements included simple duplication involving exons 1-10 of CYP19A1 and simple and complex rearrangements that presumably generated chimeric genes consisting of the coding region of CYP19A1 and promoter-associated exons of neighboring genes. Clinical severities were primarily determined by the copy number of CYP19A1 and the property of the fused promoters. Sequences at the fusion junctions suggested nonallelic homologous recombination, nonhomologous end-joining, and replication-based errors as the underlying mechanisms. The breakpoint-flanking regions were not enriched with GC content, palindromes, noncanonical DNA structures, or known rearrangement-associated motifs. The rearrangements resided in early-replicating segments. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that AEXS is caused by duplications involving CYP19A1 and simple and complex rearrangements that presumably lead to the usage of cryptic promoters of several neighboring genes. Our data support the notion that phenotypes depend on the dosage of CYP19A1 and the characteristics of the fused promoters. Furthermore, we show that the rearrangements in AEXS are generated by both recombination- and replication-mediated mechanisms, independent of the known rearrangement-inducing DNA features or late-replication timing. Thus, AEXS represents a unique model for human genomic disorders.

[Male breast diseases]. / Pathologie du sein de l'homme.

Because andrology is relatively undeveloped in France, the dermatologist is often the doctor first consulted for diseases of the nipple in men. All dermatological diseases can in fact occur at this site. There are some specific nipple diseases such as gynaecomastia, congenital abnormalities, hyperplasia, benign tumours and breast cancer. All clinical examinations and laboratory examinations should focus on diagnosis of this type of cancer and its elimination.

Drug-induced gynecomastia.

Drugs account for about 20% of gynecomastia cases in men. As a number of factors can alter the estrogen:androgen ratio, several pathophysiologic mechanisms are associated with drugs causing this disorder. Antiandrogens, protease inhibitors, and nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors are the most common drug causes of gynecomastia, whereas first-generation antipsychotics, spironolactone, verapamil, and cimetidine are less common causes. Other drugs have been reported rarely as causes. Treatment may involve switching to an alternative agent or may require surgery or irradiation if the causative agent cannot be discontinued. We reviewed the literature on drug-induced gynecomastia and provided another perspective by reviewing data from the United States Food and Drug Administration's Adverse Event Reporting System. Epidemiologic studies are needed to provide a more accurate description of the frequency of drug-induced gynecomastia.

Impact of estrogen replacement throughout childhood on growth, pituitary-gonadal axis and bone in a 46,XX patient with CYP19A1 deficiency.

BACKGROUND: The adequate replacement dose of estrogens during infancy and childhood is still not known in girls. Aromatase deficiency offers an excellent model to study how much estrogens are needed during infancy, childhood and adulthood. OBJECTIVES: We studied the impact of oral 17ß-estradiol treatment, on longitudinal growth, bone age maturation, pituitary gonadotropin feedback, multicystic ovaries and bone mass in the long-term follow-up of a girl compound heterozygote for two point mutations of the CYP19A1 gene. RESULTS: Low doses of 17ß-estradiol were needed to achieve normal height velocity and adequate bone age maturation from early childhood on. Serum estradiol levels needed for breast development and for the appearance of an endometrial reflex were not sufficient to achieve physiological gonadotropin levels. Without 17ß-estradiol treatment the ovaries of the patient showed a multicystic appearance, which reversed on 17ß-estradiol replacement. Bone mass was within normal ranges during the whole follow-up period. CONCLUSION: In summary, we have shown that estradiol is needed not only in puberty but also in childhood for normal growth, bone maturation and achievement of normal bone mass. Particularly, this observation underscores the importance of early low-dose estrogen replacement also in other estrogen-deficient conditions as for instance in Turner's syndrome.

Drug-induced gynecomastia: an evidence-based review.

INTRODUCTION: Drugs are estimated to cause about 10 - 25% of all cases of gynecomastia. Over the course of several decades, multiple medications have been implicated in the development of gynecomastia mostly in the form of case reports and case series. However, these reports suffer from a multitude of deficiencies, including poor quality of evidence. AREAS COVERED: Studies were selected for this review by performing an extensive electronic and hand-search using BIOSIS, EMBASE and Medline, from 1940 to present, for all reported drug associations of gynecomastia and their possible pathophysiology. Quality of evidence was assessed on a three-point scale: good, fair and poor, and each of the drugs reported to cause gynecomastia was assigned a level of strength. The pathophysiology of gynecomastia is also discussed in detail for each of the drugs found to have a good or fair evidence of association with gynecomastia. EXPERT OPINION: Most of the reported drug-gynecomastia associations were based on poor quality evidence. The drugs definitely associated with the onset of gynecomastia are spironolactone, cimetidine, ketoconazole, hGH, estrogens, hCG, anti-androgens, GnRH analogs and 5-α reductase inhibitors. Medications probably associated with gynecomastia include risperidone, verapamil, nifedipine, omeprazole, alkylating agents, HIV medications (efavirenz), anabolic steroids, alcohol and opioids.

Gynecomastia: physiopathology, evaluation and treatment.

Gynecomastia (GM) is characterized by enlargement of the male breast, caused by glandular proliferation and fat deposition. GM is common and occurs in adolescents, adults and in old age. The aim of this review is to discuss the pathophysiology, etiology, evaluation and therapy of GM. A hormonal imbalance between estrogens and androgens is the key hallmark of GM generation. The etiology of GM is attributable to physiological factors, endocrine tumors or dysfunctions, non-endocrine diseases, drug use or idiopathic causes. Clinical evaluation must address diagnostic confirmation, search for an etiological factor and classify GM into severity grades to guide the treatment. A proposal for tailored therapy is presented. Weight loss, reassurance, pharmacotherapy with tamoxifen and surgical correction are the therapeutic options. For long-standing GM, the best results are generally achieved through surgery, combining liposuction and mammary adenectomy.

Gigantomastia durante el embarazo / Gigantomastia during pregnancy

La gigantomastia gestacional es una entidad infrecuente producida por un crecimiento desmesurado del tejido mamario, de etiopatogenia desconocida, que puede complicarse llegando a perjudicar tanto a la madre como al feto. Presentamos el caso de una gestante de 42 años con una gran gigantomastia desarrollada durante el embarazo que alcanzó los 1.800g por mama y que pudo ser resuelta quirúrgicamente con buen resultado estético y sin graves complicaciones (AU)

Gigantomastia during pregnancy is an uncommon entity produced by uncontrollable growth of mammary tissue of unknown etiology that can negatively affect both mother and fetus. We report the case of a 42-year-old pregnant woman who developed severe gigantomastia (1800g each breast) during pregnancy, which was resolved surgically with good cosmetic result and without severe complications (AU)